Asclepiadaceae, a family of Indole alkaloids and Cardiac glycosides

The Asclepiadaceae form a climax family specializing in staminal corona, a gynostemium and pollinia. The family contains more of herbs and shrubs rather than trees and consists of 2000 species included in 250 genera. The members are laticiferous herbs, vines or shrubs. Trees are rare. A group of plants like Caralluma have become modified to cactus-like succulents. The compounds manufactured include cardiac glycosides,alkaloids of indole, pyridine and Phenanthro indolizidine groups and proanthocyanins.

Divided to 2 subfamilies.

1. Periplocoideae are primitive in that the stamens are free, corona mostly corolline and anthers are connate around the stigma, but not fused with stigma. The gynostegium and pollinia are absent here.

2. The second subfamily, the major one, is the Asclepiadoideae containing all the plants with gynostegium, pollinia and staminal corona.

A. Medicinal plants

1. Asclepias curassavica Linn (Gk Asklepios = god of medicine, due to the

medicinal properties of this plant -Kakatundi, Blood flower)

This is an erect much-branched perennial, a native of Tropical America, now cultivated as an ornamental plant. The leaves of Brazilian plants yield cardenolides such as clepogenin,

curassavogenin, ascurogenin, carotoxigenin, uzarigenin, coroglaucigenin and a glycoside uzarin. But the leaves from Indian plants are devoid of the first four compounds but are found of

contain 22 cardenolides of which calactin, calotropin, calotropagenin and asclepin are the major compounds. The Mexican samples yielded a cytotoxic compound, calotropain also. The roots are found to contain vincentoxin (asclepiadin).All parts of the plant are used in medicine. Root is considered emetic, cathartic, astringent and a remedy for gonorrhoea and piles. Roots are used

as substitute of ipecac. The whole plant is used as emetic, styptic and purgative and the extract is found to inhibit carcinomatous cells of human nasopharynx. The plant, as powder, balm or

enema, is used to destroy abdominal tumours. The latex is used against warts and corns.

2. Calotropis gigantea Ait.f. (Arkah, Milkweed)

An erect tomentose laticiferous shrub, this is a very common weed occurring in the dry regions of India. The root bark, which constitutes the drug, yields cardiac glycosides such as gigantin, giganteol, isogiganteol, calotroposides A-G, steroids like α- and β-amyrins, taraxasterol and its derivatives, β-sitosterol and a wax. The latex, found in all parts of the plant, contains caoutchouc (rubber), resin, cardiac glycosides gigantin, calotropin, uscharin, calotoxin,

calactin and uscharin (all based on the genin calotropagenin), proteases like calotropain, calotropin D1 and D2 , calotropain F1 and F2 and enzymes like invertase. Leaves contain free

sapogenins, β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, taraxasterol, ψ-taraxasterol, tannins and resin. Root bark is a substitute for ipecac and in small doses it acts as a diaphoretic and expectorant. It is useful in

leprosy and eczema. A 50% ethanolic extract is found to be anticancerous and low doses of crude methanolic extract is hypertensive and cardiotonic. Latex is a drastic purgative and emetic and induces abortion. The fibre is used for ropes, clothes and as a filling fibre. The whole plant is used as an insecticide (against white ants and larvae of Culex and Anopheles), fish poison and possesses both antifungal and antibacterial properties.

In Indian systems of medicine the tender fresh leaves are used to cure fits and convulsions in children and for migraine.

3. Calotropis procera Ait.f.(Alkarka, Dead Sea Apple)

The root bark, which constitutes the drug, contains α- and β- amyrins, taraxasterol and its isomers,isovalerates and acetates, giganteol, β-sitosterol and a wax. The latex, present in all the parts,

consists of caoutchouc, resin and cardiac glycosides, proteases and steroids. The cardiac glycosides are calotropin, uscharin, calotoxin, calactin, uscharidin (all based on the genin calotropagenin), voruscharin, proceroside and two genins, uzarigenin and syriogenin. The proteases encountered are calotropain F1, F2, calotropin D1 and D2. C. procera is found to possess almost all medicinal properties of C. gigantea and used likewise.

4. Gymnema sylvestre R.Br. (Madhunashi, Gymnema).

G. sylvestre is a large, much-branched woody twiner, a native of tropical Africa.The leaves contain gymnemic acids (with gymnemic acid being the main component), 3-beta-glucuronides of acylated gymnemagenins (hexa hydroxy olean-12-one), gymnestrogenin and conduritol A. The leaves and stems are hypoglycemic and

therefore used in treating diabetes. They are diuretic and stimulate cardiovascular system. The drug is useful in skeletal fractures and exerts a purgative action.

Gymnemic acid can destroy the ability to taste sweet substances.

5 Hemidesmus indicus R.Br. (Periploca indica Linn. Anantamool/ Sariva, Indian Sarsaparilla)

This is a twining undershrub with a woody rootstock, a native of India. Roots, which are used as the drug, contains an essential oil consisting of p-methoxy salicylic aldehyde; coumarinolignoids hemidesminine (C23H22O8) and hemidesmin 1& 2 and steroids such as hemidesmol, hemidosterol, lupeol octacosanate

and beta-amyrin acetate and coumarin. Stem contains pregnane glycosides hemidine, hemidescine, emidine, indicine, a triterpene lactone (3-keto-lup-12-ene 21(28)-olide), besides 12 dehydrolupeol acetate, lupeol acetate, sitosterol and several hydroxy methoxy benzaldehydes. Sariva is one of the rejuvenating drugs and is cooling and blood purifying. It is an alterative, aphrodisiac,

refrigerant, diuretic and tonic. It is also useful in chronic rheumatism, anaemia, dyspepsia, leucorrhoea, uterine haemorrhage and skin diseases. It is also used in abdominal tumours and an antilithic.

6. Leptadenia reticulata W & A. (Jivanti, Leptadenia)

Jivanti is a laticiferous shrubby twiner common in Western Ghats and N.E.Asia. Stems and roots yield wax consisting of long-chain alcohols (C28-C34) and acids (C28-C34), sterols such as stigmasterol, -sitosterol and a fructosan of 7-8 units. Roots are considered a rasayana (tonic) drug, useful for vitalizing the body. It is an aphrodisiac, rejuvenative, galactogogue and cures weakness, cough, dysentery, night-blindedness and tuberculosis. Leaves

are useful in skin diseases.

7. Pergularia daemia Choiv. (Daemia extensa R.Br. Pergularia extensa N.E.Br. Kurutakah, Pergularia)

This is a perennial twiner with milky latex, found all over India, S.E.Asia and Africa. Stem and seeds contain cardenolides such as calactin, calotropin, calotropagenin (from seeds) uzarigenin, coroglaucigenin (from stems). The plant is used for vesical calculus, dysurea and anurea. Leaf juice is emetic and expectorant and used in asthma, rheumatism, menstrual disorders and diarrhoea. Leaves are used externally for rheumatic swellings.

8. Tylophora indica Merrill. (T. asthmatica W.& A.- Dumvel, Tylophora)

T. indica is a woody twiner native to India. The whole extract of leaves and roots possess powerful vescicant properties. All the parts of plant possess alkaloids. Out of the numerous

compounds known, only three are important i.e. tylophorine, tylocebrine and tylophorinine. The whole extract of the leaves and roots possess powerful vescicant properties a property attributed

to tylophorine and so used effectively in fighting asthma. Tylophorine has a paralyzing action on the heart muscle, but a stimulating action on the muscles of blood vessels. All the three

principal alkaloids possess anticancer properties.

C. Biopesticides

1. Calotropis gigantea Ait.f

Arkah is used as an insecticide by many a rural folk in Gujarat.

2. C. procera Ait.f

The larvae of Anopheles stephensi List., Aedes aegypti Linn and Culex fatigans Wiedm died within three hours of putting in 50,000 ppm latex water. It is also an effective fish poison.

Aqueous extract of leaves inhibited the larval hatching of the root knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita. The alkaloidal fraction of leaves serves as an antifeedant to desert-locust (Schistocerca gregaria). A decoction of leaves, along with soap, is an effective remedy against aphids and white ants. Leaf powder is used to control the pulse beetle Callosobruchus chinensis Linn, a serious pest of stored cowpeas. Flower tops showed antifeedant activity against Rhyzoptera dominica Fabr., a pest of stored grains.

3. Cryptostegia grandiflora R.Br.

This is a lofty laticiferous climber with large glossy elliptic leaves, long large rose-colored showy flowers and 3-winged follicles. A native of Tropical Africa, this plant is extensively cultivated in gardens. Aerial parts contain proteolytic enzymes (in latex) cardenolides such as oleanodrigenin, rhodexin B, 16-propyonyl- and 16-anhydrogitoxy genin and gitoxygenin. The leaves exhibit molluscicidal activity.

4. Cynanchum arnottianum Wt.

This native of E. Asia is a perennial climber. The whole plant, especially leaves, are insecticidal useful to kill maggots in the wounds of animals.

5. Sarcostemma acidum Voigt. (Somlatha)

This is a leafless East Indian succulent wine, (leaves reduced to minute scales), flowers in umbellate cymes and thick follicles. It is also used as an insecticide.

D. Biofuels

1. Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br.

The biocrude obtained from the plant on hydrocracking yield gases, naphtha, kerosene and gas oil along with coke and residue rich in hydrocarbons (65%). Some of the main constituents of gases are methane, n-heptane, ethane and n-octane. The naphtha contains alkanes and naphthenes and can be used for production of benzene, toluene, xylene or high octane gasoline pool. (Anon, 2001). Hexane is the preferred solvent for biocrude extraction. The

biocrude can be used as a chemical feed stock.

A. General uses

1. Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br. and C. madagascariensis Miq. are woody lianas which yield the Palay rubber.

Reference 

Mammen Daniel 

Evolution within Angiosperms-1

Struggle for Existence and Survival of Fittest-18

Evolution within Angiosperms-1

      The evolution within Angiosperms can be traced easily if we, for the time being, follow a classificatory system. The system of classification I would like to follow is that proposed by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker (1862- 1883), two great taxonomists of all times, in their book “Genera Plantarum”. The preference to this system may be because it is a convenient system of classification of flowering plants and can easily be followed for field studies and that in India we use it in our curriculum. If we keep away the Gymnosperms from the middle, the classificatory scheme, especially that of Dicots, is more or less broadly similar to those proposed by Cronquist (1967) and Takhtajan (1980). Here we take most of the groups in the same sequence as in Genera Plantarum and evaluate what are the evolutionary strategies found in them one by one. But some of the groups like Magnoliales, Ranunculales, Rutales etc. are understood here as those with the recent circumscription.   

         

       G. Bentham and J. D. Hooker never bothered much about evolutionary concepts when they published “Genera Plantarum” because Charles Darwin proposed the same only few years before (1859) and that the concepts of evolution were not broadly accepted. Later onwards when the theory of organic evolution was widely accepted, Hooker wanted to revise their system of classification but Bentham was not willing to do so. Bentham passed away in 1890’s and Hooker never ever ventured to regroup the plants in an evolutionary view point.

      It would have been easy for Bentham and Hooker to revise their system of classification phylogenetically because almost all the accepted systems of classification such as those of Takhtajan, Cronquist, and Mabberly and even APG, have retained many of the basic groups proposed by B & H, albeit under varying groupings and naming. For the present moment I will follow the pattern of B & H and discuss how they can be arranged in a phylogenetic series.

Bentham and Hooker classified the Dicots based on the production of a tubular corolla (which may serve as a storage organ for nectar and also protect the essential organs in the very young stage as also to select the insects having a long proboscis to suck the nectar out) into Divisions Polypetalae and Gamopetalae and the plants without corolla in to a third Division Monochlamydeae. Since the petals were of utmost importance in attracting the pollinators, a plant without petals was definitely at a disadvantage and that may be the reason why Bentham and Hooker created the group Monochlamydeae. This corolla tube also helped in preventing insects with short proboscis to visit the flower -a clever way of giving access to particular type of insects which was very much essential to achieve pollinator specificity crucial in insect pollination. The adnation of stamens to corolla (epipetalous stamen) also was a clever technique to allow unhindered entry of insects to the corolla.

       Bentham and Hooker divided the first Division, the Polypetalae into three Series. This classification can be explained this way. The main concept prevalent in Polypetalae can be considered the protection and union of carpels. The first formed plants and their immediate descendants never understood these aspects. The ovaries of these plants were placed at the apex of the thalamus almost unprotected. This left the ovary and young fruits exposed to the insects and microbes. And also there was no provision for a convenient organ to produce and store nectar. The first group, as it was the first, was not in the know-how on how to protect the ovary, created their flowers on an uncondensed thalamus and thus the elongate thalamus of Ranales and globular thalamus of Malvales have been produced and all the plants with such a primitive thalamus (from which the stamens and carpels are protruding out) were grouped in the Series Thalamiflorae (means-flower on an open thalamus). The next group of plants, realizing the folly of an open Thalamus, produced a cup-shaped disc which would partially cover the ovary (in the base of essential whorls in some of them and almost covering the ovary as in advanced Celastrales) and also served as a nectary. These groups having a definite advantage over the plants of Thalamiflorae were grouped in the Disciflorae. The third group improved the protection of carpels and stamens by keeping them in a large thalamus cup which later fused with the ovary to make the ovary inferior and completely protected. This group was christened Calyciflorae.

 Of course within each group Thalamiflorae, Disciflorae and Calyciflorae different lines of specializations were found to be operative and these are explained below.

The first cohort (present day Order) Ranales, though having a common character of many stamens and carpels in spirals contained two distinct groups. One composed of the woody, mostly homoxylous trees elaborating volatile oils and the other mostly herbaceous plants producing bitter alkaloids. The former one is now separated as the Magnoliales and the latter, the Ranunculales.

        Magnoliales evidently was the first group which elaborated a complete flower having both calyx and corolla. In this taxon a number of primitive characters are seen such as homoxylous wood, leaf like stamens and incompletely closed carpels etc. Magnolia flower which is typical of this group was one of the first “finished” flowers. Since this was one of the earliest flowers, a number of finer details were not worked out. The other primitive characters here were the tree habit, elongated thalamus, large number of spirally arranged stamens and many free carpels (and thus many seeds) also spirally arranged. The elongated thalamus holding the ripe carpels (later young seeds) and stamens were easy targets of herbivorous insects which found it easy to sit on the petals and eat away the ovules and ovaries. Probably this prompted the plant to understand the folly of an elongated thalamus (and that is why none of the other Angiosperms never ever produced an elongated thalamus). The plants of this group had volatile oils as the antimicrobial compounds (similar to the conifers).

      Ranunculales were the group evolved from the Magnoliales, after rectifying a number of disadvantageous (primitive) characters like tree habit, elongated thalamus etc and this group (through "Neoteny") evolved herbaceous plants (herbs and climbers) with a more or less spherical thalamus. But it did not change the spiral arrangement of essential whorls and apocarpy. Another breakthrough achieved here is the abandoning of the volatile oils and introducing a new group of extremely poisonous compounds, the benzyl isoquinoline alkloids. The Ranunculaceae and Menispermaceae were the two families with alkaloids and they included some of the most toxic plants. Between the two families Ranunculaceae and Menispermaceae, the latter was definitely more advanced because of the twining habit and unisexual flowers.

      Alkaloids as a defensive chemical was excellent at that time, but there existed a problem associated with them. Alkaloids are basic in nature occurring in plants as salts of organic acids. A high concentration of these compounds tilts the ionic balance of protoplasm and thus affects the metabolism of the parent plant. Also they would react with the very essential organic acids involved in metabolism. Because of these drawbacks another group of plants replaced alkaloids with less toxic insecticidals, the acetogenins. This group was the Annonaceae. Another line of evolution seen in the Annonaceae was the production of trimerous flowers (as in Monocots, which might have evolved from a precursor of the Annonaceae), a conical thalamus and a fleshy fruit in some members formed by the adhesion of the free carpels at a post-fertilization stage (eg. Annona).

         Somehow at this time, the plants realized that reduction in essential whorls especially carpels (to reduce the number of seeds) and fusion of carpels (to produce a solid fruit) will reduce the expenses and give a definite advantage. The fusion of carpels proceeded in two lines (a) fusion of open carpel and (b) fusion of closed carpels. The former line produced the group Parietales. In a few members, the carpels fused were three in number and a tricarpellary pistil as in Violaceae was produced. This fruit was a bladdery structure which did not possess much of a mechanical strength and would break easily. But within this order, the family Violaceae attempted a number of advanced features such as zygomorphy and production of nectaries (containing nectar, the food for insects). In slightly advanced members of this group, Capparaceae, the carpels were reduced to two and in further advancement, the Brassicaceae attempted erecting a cross wall between carpels (replum) which would give more mechanical strength to the fruits. Other advanced feature of the Brassicaceae was its tetradynamous stamen (placing the stamens at two heights; 4 at one height and two of a different height) which was a better way to ensure that the insect visitor brushes with any of the stamens.

      Probably learned from the setbacks suffered by Ranunculales because of the alkaloids, Parietales abolished these compounds and replaced them with a less toxic, pungent sulphur containing glycosides – the glucosinolates. These compounds get hydrolysed by an accompanying enzyme; when the plant was bruised and produced pungent isothiocyanates. These compounds made the plants “hot” for taste (thus not preferred by animals). I remember an incident when a scientist working on a mutant mustard which produced non-pungent oil -free of glucosinolates or isothiocyanates – claimed that “before (the mutation) peacocks would never used to eat mustard plant. But now (after mutation, when the glucosinolate production is blocked) the peacocks were seen eating the plant merrily”. I told that fellow “Hey man, you took away the defences of the poor Brassica plant. Now it will be very difficult for the plant to survive”. The glucosinolates were antimicrobial too (remember the sulpha-drugs the doctors recommend when we suffer from a fever) and thus protected the plants from microbial attack and this may be the reason why some Families of this order like Brassicaceae was successful and became one of the larger families of Angiosperms.

            Parietales were one line of evolution. The second line attempted the fusion of closed carpels. The closed carpels fused by the ventral sutures so that the ovules arose from the central axis resulting in axile placentation. Both Polygalales and Malvales attempted this mode of carpel fusion and produced fleshy or capsular fruits.

       I do not know why both Polygalales and Malvales did not pursue the parietalian defence method of the glucosinolates. Both of these orders discarded these compounds and produced saponins (Polygalales) or mucilages (Malvales).

       Polygalales exhibited a number of evolutionary trends such as introduction of zygomorphy in flowers and reduction of stamens to three and carpels to two. The production of a flower similar to those of Papilionaceae was achieved by the combined action of 2 posterior sepals and one anterior and two posterior petals. Stamens also were united (monadelphous). Saponins were the compounds discovered by these groups as the defensive compounds. The ability of saponins to haemolyse RBC, toxicity to fish and ability to convert to steroidal hormones might have been the reason for the acceptance of these compounds by these plants.

      Malvales presented evolution in another direction. They resorted to mucilage as their characteristic compounds. It is a well-known fact that animals do not relish mucilage containing plants. Any wounding of leaves / stem initiates the flow of “tasteless” mucilage which will deter the herbivores feeding them. Moreover mucilages do not favour growth of microbes also. In addition, stellate hairs (to protect the epidermis from microbes and to reduce transpiration), bast fibres (which protect the food conducting tissue) and cyclopropenoid fatty acids such as sterculic and malvalic acids (the evolutionary significance of which is not known) are other features found here. Within the Malvales, Tiliaceae with many stamens and woody habit formed the basic group with Sterculiaceae forming one line of evolution (with tendency to unisexuality as in tribe Sterculieae, reduction of stamens to 5, cohesion of stamens to form a monadelphous condition and sterile staminodes becoming petalloid) and Malvaceae forming another line of evolution (with one-celled reniform anthers and stamens in monadelphous condition).

        The Caryophyllales followed another trend in evolution in reducing the number of ovules. The mechanism was simple. From axile placentation prevalent in Polygalales, Malvales or Guttiferales, this group evolved free central placentation by the dissolution of the septa in between the chambers. This produced a long free central placental cylinder (column) bearing all the ovules as in Caryophyllaceae. A reduction in height of this column resulted in basal parietal placentation as seen in Portulacaceae. This group is specialized in many different directions such as betacyanins, p-plastids, pantoporate type of pollen, abnormal secondary thickening in wood and a peculiar syndrome of embryological characters and thus is similar to the of Centrospermae (monochlamydeae) and thus now considered as a distinct subclass (will be discussed later)

       Guttiferae (Theales/Clusiales) is another primitive group like Magnoliales having a tree habit, flowers with many stamens and many carpels and contained tannins (like pteridosperms) or resins (like conifers) formed another line of evolution. Lacking the specializations of other groups, it is believed to be a basal order from which Disciflorae and Calyciflorae taxa are evolved. 

Sources:

1. Arthur Cronquist (1981) An Integrated System of Classification ofFlowering Plants, Columbia University Press, New York.

2. M. Daniel (2009) Taxonomy: Evolution at Work. Alpha Science International Ltd, Oxford, U. K. Indian Edition by Narosa Publishers, New Delhi. (Copies of book not available for sale, but PDF can be procured from author)

Mammen Daniel 

Nani Luni (Portulaca quadrifida), a wonder herb for muscle-building and for healthy mind and heart

Nani Luni (Portulaca quadrifida), a wonder herb for muscle-building and for healthy mind and heart

13th March, Vadodara.

(A news item appeared in Todays's Times of India, Ahmedabad & Baroda)

Nani luni, (chickweed- Portulaca quadrifida) is a smaller relative of Luni (Portulaca oleracea) – a well-known herb easing hypertension in Western countries. This is abundant as a weed in many of the agricultural fields and is found recently a treasure trove of phytochemicals which help in building muscles and body for athletes, reduce hypertension and insomnia and prevent and heal cancer. A LCMS study conducted by us identified at least 8 phytochemicals like vinaginsenoside, biliverdin, testosterone glucuronide , coumestrin etc which improve stamina, reduce fatigue, builds muscles and body and accelerate other anabolic activities. We found more than a dozen compounds such as nicergoline, ganglioside, crocin, aralioside, armillane etc which are neuroprotective, reduce depression and insomnia, induces sleep and rectifies Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. The cardiotonic (heart-friendly) compounds located are panogenin (reduces platelets aggregation), epicatechin (thins blood), lupeol (reduces cholesterol) and 7-hydroxy ticlopidine (thins blood, strengthens cardiac muscles). The anticancer compounds (8 in number) include albanin H, erioflorin, camptothecin, 13-cis-retinol, and mangiferin. Then there were other compounds which are antibacterial and antiviral(about 6 in number) and 2 analgesic compounds.

In addition, this herb is found to contain a large number compounds (more than 800) consisting of essential chemicals like phospholipids (including sphingolipids needed for membranes, brain, heart, neurons) , many free fatty acids, fatty alcohols, free amino acids (along with di- and oligipeptides), many sugars including di and trisaccharides, plant hormones, minerals and co-enzymes etc. which form a metabolic pool of compounds useful in the regular growth of human body.

The alcoholic extract of this plant is found to contain a total of 997 compounds of which 899 are identified by LCMS available at Gujarat Biotechnology Research Centre, Gandhinagar, Gujarat. (The total compounds present in a plant is known as plant “metabolome”, which include all primary and secondary metabolites and the number varies from one to several thousands.)

Portulaca quadrifida, also known as “Jinni Looni” (in Gujarati) and Chicken Weed (in English) is a common, sometimes as a troublesome weed in many agricultural fields everywhere. In Gujarat, this is a food preferred in days of fasting and preparations like “bajiya, Dokhla, Mudddhiya and raita” are prepared. In Rajasthan, the leaves are used in preparing bread by mixing with Bajra. In many other states leaves and tender shoots cooked and eaten as greens. Locals use them as a medicine in asthma, cough, urinary discharges, inflammations, ulcers, rheumatism or as a sedative, analgesic, cardiotonic and to treat fever. Even there is an rarlier report of anticancer activity on this plant.

This weed is considered a native to Africa, it is now Pantropical weed in Tropical Asia and Africa to Malaya, and the Marianne and Caroline Islands.

Mammen Daniel 

Miracle fruit- a boon to sweet-toothed diabetics and dieters

Miracle fruit- a boon to sweet-toothed diabetics and dieters

Miracle fruit is the fruit of Synsepalum dulcificum, a member of Sapotaceae, having a sweet modifying protein, “Miraculin”, in the pulp which causes sour edibles to taste sweet after the mouth has been exposed to the fruits. The miracle plant was first discovered in 1725 by an explorer Chaveliar des Marchais who observed the natives chewed the fruit before meals to make stale food taste sweeter and better. This plant is reported in West and Central Africa, specifically in countries like Congo, Ghana and Nigeria. The plant is known as Agbayun and Uni respectively among the Yoruba and Igbo people of southern Nigeria. Miracle plant is a tall bush or a small tree growing to a height of about 3 m in cultivation, and 6.1 m in a native habitat. Leaves are 5–10 cm long and 2–3.7 cm wide. Flowers are cream-colored but turn dark-red or brown with maturity. The flowers are bisexual. The calyx is made up of four to five sepals, the corolla four to five petals, and the androecium five stamens. The gynoecium stands erect with an unspectacular stigma. The ripe fruit is red in color, clustered at the ends of the branches. The berry is about the size of a coffee bean, roughly 2 cm long and 1 cm wide. It has relatively large seed which is encapsulated by a translucent pulp that is covered by a thin skin. The sweetening principle, miraculin, is present in the pulp.

The pulp of the fruit contains 4.44% (fresh wt.) of Miraculin. Miraculin is a single polypeptide glycoprotein consisting of two sugars linked to two amino acid residues and with molecular weight ranging from 24,000 to 45,000 Da (Lim, 2012). The two amino acid residues are held together by intramolecular disulfide bonds and are composed of 191 amino acid residues.

The sweetening effect takes place when miraculin binds to taste cell membranes near the sweet receptor site. Consequently, a conformational change occurs in the receptor epithelial plasma membrane, allowing the carbohydrate portion of miraculin to bind to the sweet receptor site, and producing the sensation of sweetness. The presence of protons (H+) is required during the conformational change. That is, the property of miraculin to induce sweetness through conformational changes in the receptor membrane is pH-dependent. The duration of miraculin effect was established to be about 3 hrs and it vanishes gradually within 20 min. Miraculin binds to the membrane of the receptor taste receptor type 1 member 3 (T1R2-T1R3) and acts as antagonist in any sour solution. In addition to miraculin, the fruit contains potent Anthocyanins like delphinidin glucoside, cyanidin galactoside and malvidin galactoside, flavonoids like epicatechin, rutin, quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol and other antioxidantive phytochemicals like, gallic, ferulic, syringic acid, , a-tocotrienol, a- and c-tocopherol and lutein. Other constituents are vitamins A,C, E and K and both essential (lysine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, threonine etc) and non-essential (glycine, proline, serine, tyrosine) amino acids.

Miracle fruit is popular among patients with diabetes and obesity in Japan. A mixture of miracle fruit, carambola, pumpkin and papaya could boost the immune function of mice. It is also found effective in cancer, uric acid and high levels of cholesterol.

Leaves and roots

The vegetative parts of the plant also is a source of useful phytochemicals like dihydro-feruloyl-5-methoxytyramine; (+)-syringaresinol, (+)-epi-syringaresinol, N-cis-feruloyltyramine, N-trans-feruloyltyramine, and N-cis-caffeoyltyramine β-sitosterol, and stigmasterol.

Uses

All parts of S. dulcificum are reputed to cure or manage various human diseases and ailments and different herbal preparations from the plant are used in traditional medicine.

In Benin, the root is used to treat sexual weakness, cough and tuberculosis. Likewise, the leaves are involved in the treatment of diabetes, malaria, hyperthermia and enuresis while the bark is employed in the treatment of prostate ailments. In Nigeria, the root macerated in local gin or soda water is used for the cure of gonorrhoea (Ekpo et al., 2008). In Lagos (Nigeria), S. dulcificum leaves are used for the management of asthma, male infertility, diabetes, weight loss and cancer (Makinde et al., 2015). In other region of West Africa like Ghana, the fruit has been used to sweeten sour foods and beverages such as Koko and Kenkey made from fermented maize and millet, and palm wine.

In Congo, where it is known as bomonga, the bark is used as cure for erectile dysfunction. In Japan, miracle fruit is popularly used by diabetic and obese patients (Du et al., 2014). The use of S. dulcificum as a multipurpose traditional medicine has been translated into several commercial applications and it is a highly valued plant in the pharmaceutical, natural health and food industries (Akinmoladun, 2016).

In traditional medicine, the leaves are the most useful plant parts (90%), followed by the root (7%), bark (1.5%), stem (1%) and fruit (0.5%). Information on ethnomedicinal uses of S. dulcificum documented in this review was obtained from literature spanning seven countries. It is worthy of note that the region with the highest number of ethnomedicinal uses of S. dulcificum is West Africa. Literature records also show high degree of consensus for at least two major categories of diseases, notably diabetes and sexually-related diseases, for which this plant is used.

Cultivation

S. dulcificum is produced and cultivated in large quantities in Taiwan and Japan .The plant has now been known to be propagated by the United States Department of Agriculture, and Federal Experiment Station in Puerto Rico. It best adapts to Jamaica, the south of U.S. (best in Florida) or Hawaii. The fruit grows in a single season ranging from May to September, though berries are generated year-round.

References

Akinmoladun et al (2020) Nutritional benefits.......... Miracle fruit (Synsepalum dulcifolium Daniell) Heliyon 2020 Dec. 6(2):e05837. Published on line 2020 Dec. 29

Mammen Daniel 

Anacardiaceae- Resin and Tannin rich family

Anacardiaceae- Resin and Tannin rich family

This is the climax family of Sapindales with a number evolutionary reduction in flower characters.

Distinguishing features

Resins, tannins and or gums, intrastaminal disc, unilocular ovary and drupaceous fruit.

This is mostly a tropical family containing 875 species included in 70 genera.

Useful plants

A. General uses

The family is a rich repository of medicines, edible nuts, resins, lacquer and tannins.

Fruits and Nuts

1.Anacardium (ana = inverted; cardium = heart, alluding to the heart shape of the swollen edible pedicel of fruit) A. occidentale Linn. is the source of Cashew nut. The swollen pedicel is used for making beverages like “Feni” in Goa and the nut shell yields valuable lipids of use in medicine. Cashew nut shell liquid is a mixture of phenolic compounds with aliphatic side chains, and these are 70% anacardic acid, 5% cardanol, and 18% cardol [57] . It is used as a raw material to high value specialty chemicals. C.N.S.L. has innumerable applications in polymer based industries such as friction linings, paints and varnishes, laminating resins, rubber compounding resins, cashew cements, polyurethane based polymers, surfactants, epoxy resins, foundry chemicals and intermediates for chemical industry. Fungicides, pesticide, insecticide, brake linings, paints and primers, foundry chemicals, lacquers, cements, specialty coatings and resin. The application of CNSL component in bacteriostatic antibiotics is recently gaining attention. It is also an alternative fuel for diesel engine.

2.Mangifera (manga is the name of the fruit in South Indian languages and therefore Mangifera is the plant bearing mango). Mangifera indica Linn. is the source of the fruit, mango.

3.Pistacia (pistake in Greek means pistachio nut) P. vera is the source of pistachio nuts.

P.lentiscus Linn. P. cabulica Stocks yield mastic, a resin used for varnish.

The resin gets collected in the cavities of the inner bark and exudes naturally; the exudation is often enhanced by incisions. The solidified resin is available in the form of yellow brittle tears or plates. Mastic contains less than 2% volatile oil and so sometimes counted as a hard resin. The volatile oil consists chiefly of d-pinene and the resin is of triterpene acids like masticadienoic acid. Also present in the resin are triterpene alcohols such as tucallol. One of the oldest and expensive resins, mastic is used to prepare a. pale varnish employed for painting, lithography and perfumery. In medicine it is used as a pharmaceutic aid.

4. Spondias (10) S. dulcis Sonn., S. mombin Linn. and S. purpurea Linn. yield fruits Otaheite Mombin and Spanish plum respectively.

Otaheite is the fruit of Spondias dulcis (S.cytheria) oval in shape, 6–9 cm (2.4–3.5 in) long, are borne in bunches of 12 or more on a long stalk. turn golden-yellow as they ripen. may be eaten raw; the flesh is crunchy and a little sour. it has a pineapple-mango flavor. The flesh is golden in color, very juicy, vaguely sweet, but with a hint of tart acidity. The fruit is made into preserves and flavorings for sauces, soups, braised and stews.

Spanish plum (Spondias purpurea) was grown widely from Mexico to the northern region of South America. The fresh fruit has a very pleasant taste and its consumption is increasing. It is a valuable but economical raw material for the preparation of soft drinks, preserves and syrups and is also eaten as a dried fruit.

5.Rhus (classical Latin name for R. coriaria – 200) R. coriaria Linn., R. glabra Linn., R. typhinaLinn., R. copallina Linn. etc give Sumac from leaves, which is a source of tannin

Sumac The dry leaves of Rhus glabra L., R. typhina L. and R. copalhna L., natives of N. America, are extensively used as tanning materials. The amount of tannins present in the leaves varies from 10 to 35%. The principal tannin component is hepta/nona-O-galloyl-D-glucose as in the case of Chinese tannin. Sumac tannin is used in soft leather industry.The galls produced in the leaves of Rhus chinensis Mill (R. semialata) due to the attack of Aphis chinesis yield the chinese tannin of commerce.

Toxicodendron vernicifluum (formerly Rhus verniciflua[1]), also known by the common name Chinese lacquer tree,[1][2][3] is an Asian tree species of genus Toxicodendron native to China and the Indian subcontinent, and cultivated in regions of China, Japan and Korea.

Sap, containing urushiol (an allergenic irritant), is tapped from the trunk of the Chinese lacquer tree to produce lacquer. This is done by cutting 5 to 10 horizontal lines on the trunk of a 10-year-old tree, and then collecting the greyish yellow sap that exudes. The sap is then filtered, heat-treated, or coloured before applying onto a base material that is to be lacquered. Curing the applied sap requires "drying" it in a warm, humid chamber or closet for 12 to 24 hours where the urushiol polymerizes to form a clear, hard, and waterproof surface. In its liquid state, urushiol can cause extreme rashes, even from vapours. Once hardened, reactions are possible but less common.Products coated with lacquer are recognizable by an extremely durable and glossy finish. Lacquer has many uses; some common applications include tableware, musical instruments, fountain pens,[6] jewelry, and bows for archery.

6. Schinopsis (similar to Schinus: Schinus is from Gk schinos, the name used for Pistacia lentiscus)S. lorentzii Engl. and S. balansae Engelm. yield Quebracho wood which is one of the important sources of tannin.

Quebracho (Schinopsis spp)

Considered as the most important tanstuff of America, quebracho is obtained from two species of Schinopsis ; S. lorertzii Engl. and S. balansae Englm, two native South American trees. The wood contains 40-60% tannins. This is one of the quickest acting tans and is used for all types of leathers. The wood of this plant is one of the hardest timbers.

B. Medicinal plants

1. Semecarpus anacardium Linn. (Bhilawa, Marking Nut)

This tree is a native of Asian and Australian tropics. The nut contains a variety of phenols like bhilawanol, anacardic acid, cardol, catechol, anacardol, semecarpol and a fixed oil. Bhilawanol is a catechol derivative with a C15H37 side chain, and this chain, due to the lipid nature, helps the compounds to be absorbed through the skin. The resulting colour may be due to the oxidation of catechols to orthoquinones, which in turn get polymerised to coloured

complexes. The resinous juice extracted from the nut is used to remove rheumatic pains, aches, sprains and for any sort of venereal complaint or leprosy. In small doses it is a stimulant and narcotic.

Recently it is found out that is that anacardic acids, cardols, and cardanols display varying levels of anticancer activity, but differ in effectiveness against specific cell lines and a chloroform extract of the Semecarpus anacardium nut has shown anti-tumor activity against various experimental cancer cells, e.g., B16 melanoma and leukemia L-1210 cells.26 In a more recent study, Sowmyalakshmi et al.27 found that hexane and chloroform fraction extracts of the Siddha medicine Semecarpus Lehyam (SL) were effective at reducing viability and increasing apoptosis of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines.

C. Biopesticides

1. Anacardium occidentale Linn (Kaju, Cashew nut)

Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is an efficientmosquito larvicide. It enhances the antimosquito activity of kerosene or high speed diesel oil. Anumber of new pesticides are prepared from the phenolic components of CNSL.

2. Schinus molle Linn. (Brazilian pepper tree)

This is a small aromatic tree, a native of Brazil & Peru. All parts of the tree are rich in an

essential oil containing limonene, 3 carene, phellandrene, thujene, pinene, sabinine etc.

Leaves & fruits are repellants to aphids

3. S. terebinthifolius Raddi, also known as pepper tree, is used similarly

D. Natural Dyes

1. Cotinus coggygria Scop. (Rhus cotinus Linn.-Tunga)

The Leaves of this plant, a native of Mediterranean and China, yield fisetin, a flavone, as the principal coloring matter, occurring as a salt of tannic acid. Also present are methyl gallate and tannins like leucofisetinidin (a flavan-3, 4-diol). It is used for dyeing wool and an

orange or scarlet color to leather. Also used for coloring foodstuffs.

2. Lannea coromandelica Merr. (Odina woodier Roxb.-Jingini, Wodier)

This is a deciduous tree of 20m, a native of India. The bark contains tannin, gum and a good amount of potassium carbonate. The fruit on boiling in water containing a little salt, gives a grey dye. The bark, used in combination with Phyllanthus emblica and Artocarpus (in equal proportions) when steeped in water for 15-20 days yields a orange dye, which gives the yarn a charcoal grey color. The bark of Lannea is also used in combination with barks ofCareya arborea and Eugenia jambolana in a similar way.

3. Mangifera indica Linn. (Am, Mango)

Mango, one of the important fruit trees of India, is a large tree native to India. The bark contains a xanthone-6-glucoside, mangiferin, and 16-20% of tannins and yields a coloring

matter which produces yellow shades on cotton, silk and wool. With turmeric and lime it produces a rose-pink color. Bark extract yields an ochre-yellow dye. The leaves yield green and yellow colors. The bark is used as an auxiliary also. The dried immature fruit is used as a mordant in dyeing with safflower and in place of acids in dyeing silk and wool. The dye is extracted in water and is used for topping turmeric dyed materials to improve fastness and with a little alum to get a greenish yellow color. It is also used to develop green color on indigo dyed materials.

Mammen Daniel 

Have 3-5 Anjir (Fig fruit) a day and keep cancer away

Have 3-5 Anjir (Fig fruit) a day and keep cancer away. Fig fruit contains three anti cancer compounds like benzaldehyde, coumarins and lupeol. Benzaldehyde induces the destruction of mitochondrial structure of cancer-infected cells, digestion of broken organelles by secondary lysosomes (in cells affected by cancer) and prompts the cancer cells to autophagic cell death (cell suicide). Investigators at the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research in Tokyo say benzaldehyde is highly effective at shrinking tumors. Coumarins are useful both as food chemicals in anti-cancer diets and anti-HIV therapy and are effective in breast cancer chemotherapy. Lupeol blocks the function of the protein NF-KB which assists cancer-promoting cells in the process of growth and repairs and suppresses the growth and spread of liver, prostate, and breast cancer. Figs are used widely for the treatment of major diseases like cancer and paralysis. Dr. Kochi from Japan, who specializes in using figs for its medical value, has treated twenty kinds of cancer with figs. Figs contain high mounts of minerals like calcium, iron, pottassium and copper and appreciable amounts of of vitamin A and C, omega-3 and omega-6 acids and dietary fibre. High amounts of potassium helps in reducing hypertension and regulate sugar content in blood, Calcium helps in strengthening bones and in osteoporosis, iron in treating cases of anemia and to increase hemoglobin content and fibre, in reducing cholesterol and diabetes

Mammen Daniel 

Glucosinolates of Moringa and Cruciferous vegetables, the best antioxidants in world.

Glucosinolates of Moringa and Cruciferous vegetables, the best antioxidants in world.

Glucosinolates (Mustard oil glycosides) are sulphur containing glycosides responsible for the pungent taste and characteristic flavor of drumstick, mustard, horse-raddish etc. They are the long lasting antioxidants actve in the body as many as 3 to 4 days after the food containing them has been consumed (Please see below). They are present in almost all the members of Brassicaceae, Capparaceae and related taxa. In the plant an enzyme myrosinase occurs spatially separated from these compounds. But on crushing the enzyme acts on the glucosinolates and liberate volatile isothiocyanates and glucose. The isothiocyanates have a general formula R N = C= S and various members of this group differ in R-group. More than 80 different isothiocyanates are reported and, due to their pungency and offensive odour, they protect the plants containing them from microbes, pests and herbivores.

 Alkyl-, alkenyl-, methyl thio alkyl- and benzyl isothiocyanates are lipids in nature and thus can penetrate biomembranes and interact with epidermal and mucosal tissues. They are also antibiotic. Sinigrin present in mustard yielding allyl isothiocyanate and glucotropaeolin from Tropaeolum majus yielding benzyl isothiocyanate are two common glucosinolates present in plant kingdom.

Glucosinolates are one of the best antioxidants which act "indirectly" to activate the body's detoxification systems. These compounds affect the body's own antioxidant systems. This cascade of antioxidant activity may cycle over and over, continuing to circulate in the body as many as 3 to 4 days after the glucosinolate-containing food has been consumed. Among all of the cruciferous vegetables, broccoli sprouts have the highestlevel of the Glucosinolates.. Just two or three tablespoons of broccoli sprouts a day provide a powerful dose of glucosinolates. After broccoli sprouts, cauliflower sprouts are second highest in terms of containing the relevant glucosinolates. Cooking changes the properties of glucosinolates, so people eat both raw vegetables to gain the maximum benefits. Glucosinolates are also available in supplement form for those who do not eat enough plant and vegetable sources.

 

  Glucosinolates are boroken down during chewing to their active form, sulforaphane (isothiocyanates), which is then what triggers the enzymatic process. Some of the beneficial effects of these compounds are the following:

1. Heal and prevent all types of cancers, such as stomach, colon, esophageal, lung and breast cancers. They work by eliminating cancer-causing toxins and helping destroy cancerous cells. Glucosinolate-breakdown products, particularly isothiocyanates and nitriles, have been shown to modulate carcinogen metabolising enzyme systems, induce cell cycle arrest or apoptosis. The anticancer potential of the different glucosinolate metabolites is diverse and their effect on the above mentioned cellular mechanisms is also affected by the model system employed. Results of in vivo studies with isolated glucosinolates or isothiocyanates compared to those with cruciferous vegetables demonstrate that the chemopreventive effect of cruciferous vegetables is due to combined effect of the different glucosinolate metabolites and the optimal combination of these compounds found in Cruciferae provide the beneficial health effects. In addition, the mineral selenium derived from crucifers also act as anti-tumour agent.

2. Help lower blood pressure. Glucoraphanin, also known as sulforaphane glucosinolate (SGS(TM)), a naturally-occurring compound found in broccoli sprouts and broccoli, may reduce risk of high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease and stroke by raising the antioxidant levels and thereby the anti-inflammatory capacities of cells and profoundly affect the cardiovascular system and can correct major dysfunctions such as hypertension and stroke (Wu et al., 2004). Rats fed on a glucoraphanin-rich diet exhibited increased tissue antioxidant defense mechanisms, lowered inflammatory response and improved cardiovascular health as demonstrated by decreased blood pressure and decreased inflammation in the heart, arteries and kidneys. This study is said to open up a whole new area of research that may lead to a simple, preventive measure that may help millions of people reduce their risk of cardiovascular disease.

3. Long lasting antioxidant activity. It is now proved that antioxidant defense mechanisms may be boosted by specific chemicals known as Phase 2 protein inducers such as Glucoraphanin or SGS. They play a role in boosting the body's natural Phase 2 enzyme antioxidant defense systems and functions as a powerful indirect antioxidant detoxifying carcinogens before they can damage cells. The long lasting nature of SGS is that its action is indirect working as a catalyst. It does not neutralize free radicals directly, but rather boosts the body's own antioxidant systems (including Phase 2 detoxification enzymes) that exert ongoing and prolonged antioxidant activity. The typical direct antioxidant molecules, such as Vitamins C and E, scavenge one free radical or other oxidant molecule at a time. (Once a direct antioxidant molecule binds to a free radical molecule, rendering it harmless, the antioxidant is consumed and is no longer active, and thus are active only for a short duration). But glucosinolates show a broad spectrum of activity, cycling over and over, removing many free radicals. It is like an army of antioxidants, ready to neutralize free radicals over a period of time, and continues to be effective in the body for at least a day, even after SGS is gone. More than 125 Studies attest to protective benefits of Sulforaphane and Broccoli Sprouts and an equal number of papers have been published on sulforaphane, SGS and broccoli sprouts.

4. Detoxifying the liver. The glucosinolates of Spanish black raddish (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger) were found to induce three detoxification enzymessuch as glutathione S-transferase, quinone reductase and thioredoxin reductase in liver cells such as Hepa-1c1c7 cells and Hep G2cells. Such processes increase the detoxification processes carried in the liver.

Source:

Nutraceuticals in “Useful Herbs of Planet Earth” (M.Daniel, 2012) Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur/ New Delhi,

Mammen Daniel 

Colorful fungi and their Pigments.

Colorful fungi and their Pigments. 

(Photos: Fly Agaric, Cortinarius, Cantharellus, Ganoderma)

Ever wondered how some of the fungi, especially the visible mushrooms possess characteristic brilliant colors? Yes they produce a wide variety of compounds like quinones, carotenoids, betacyanins, alkaloids, xanthones , biphenyls, melanin etc. The interested reader may refer (Jan and Karrel, 2011). Various pigments and other fungi constituents show important biological activities like antioxidative, free radical scavenging, anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, antiviral and antibacterial that have generated intensive research interest.

  The important groups of pigments of fungi are as follows.

1. Quinones.

Most of us are familiar with the ubiquitous plastoquinones, ubiquinones and tocopherols and vitamin K. But Quinones, the aromatic diketones, form the largest class of natural colouring matters and of the total 800 and more compounds known, about 50% occur in higher plants and of the rest, a large percentage are known form fungi. Fungi like Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillum, Monascus, Trichoderma, and Laetiporus are reported to produce simple quinones, anthraquinones, Rubropuntamine, Rubropuntatin, Ankaflavin, Monascin, β-carotene, and many other pigments responsible for various colors, viz. red, purple, yellow, brown, orange, and green.

Cortinarius the largest genus of agarics, (1000spp.), Dermocybe and Tricholoma contain a range of anthraquinones like fallacinol, bright yellow dimeric anthraquinone, flavomannin-6,6 ́-di-O-methyl ether, green (3R)-atrochrysone seen in C. atrovirens and C. odoratus .

Gomphidius and Suillus of the order Boletales are characterized by a diversity of colours that are mainly derived from terphenylquinones like polyporic acid and the yellow pulvinic acids. Pulvinic acids are especially widespread in mushrooms belonging to the Gomphidiaceae and Suillaceae families, 

Prenylated benzoquinones, like meroterpenoids such as boviquinones are seen in genera like Chroogogompus and Suillus 

2. Carotenoids 

 Carotenoids are not widespread in higher fungi as they are in plants; nevertheless, they have been isolated from several yellow pigmented Cantharellus species. The golden chanterelle, C. cibarius pigment mixture was found to consist mainly of β-carotene and also present were lycopene, α-carotene and two other carotenes, probably the γ- and δ-isomers or the xanthophyl canthaxanthin that was found in the pink to red-orange cinnabar chanterelle C. cinnabarinus as the main pigment

Scaurins are the polyene pigments with bound glutamic acid that were isolated from the fruiting bodies of C. Scaurus.

 Orange-yellow polyenes of fatty acid origin, dihydroxerulin, xerulin and xerulinic acid (27), are the pigments of Oudemansiella that act as inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis.

3. Betacyanins in Fly Agaric (Amanita)

The striking orange-red pigments of the cap of fly agaric, Amanita muscaria are a mixture of the purple betacyanin muscapurpurin , orange betaxanthins muscaurins and yellow muscaflavin

4. Xanthones in Cortinarius

Cortinarius contain the xanthone dermoxanthone and its methyl ester which are responsible for the bright yellow fluorescence under UV light (Gill 1999). 

5. Alkaloids in Cortinarius

Canthin-6-one alkaloids are produced by some other Cortinarius. species. The parent compound canthin-6-one (21) occurs in the bitter-tasting C. infractus (Pers.) Fr. together with the β-carboline derivatives infractin A and B (22) (Gill 1996). The benzotropolone derivative aurantricholone (23), isolated from the bright orange-red caps of Tricholoma aurantium. 

The pyrroloquinone alkaloids isolated from Mycena include red mycearubin A (29), mycearubin B (30) and related compounds from the fruiting bodies of M. rosea 

Hydrazine derivatives. The carrot truffle, Stephanospora caroticolor contains in its subterranean tuber-like fruiting bodies the pigment stephanosporin occuring naturally as its potassium salts and is responsible for the bright orange colour of the mushroom (LANG et al. 2001). 

6. Styryl pyrones

The yellow-brown styrylpyrone pigments bisnoryangonin and hispidin (25) are widespread among fungi of the Strophariaceae familie, genera Gymnopilus, Hypholoma and Pholiota. It also occurs in mushrooms of the Hymenochaetaceae family, e.g. in Inonotus 

7. Biphenyls

In genus Suillus, biphenyls derived from 1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene include the red gomphilactone (43) and the corresponding . Variegatorubin (44) and xerocomorubin are the coloring pigments.

8. Melanin like pigments

 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine melanins from Ganoderma luteum.

A note on medicinal values of some mush rooms.

Some of them are not edible and are toxic if ingested. But many of them are now considered medicines of high therapeutic value. For.e.g. Fly Agaric is used as a treatment for sore throats, and arthritis, and as an analgesic. Its tincture helps to relieve sciatica and other pain, including joint pain and swollen lymph nodes. Tincture can also be applied to external infections, for example nail fungus, and skin conditions found in Lyme disease. Cortinarius collinitus is mentioned in this US patent on dietary supplements to improve immune function, treat malignancies and virus infection. Cantharellus cibarius has been reported to display a wide variety of biological properties, including antimicrobial, cytotoxicity, antioxidant, antihypoxic, antihyperglycemic, wound healing, anti-inflammatory, iron-chelation activity. Ganoderma increases body resistance against the growth of tumors, induce the production of interferon, enhance the immunity function, and kill tumor cells within the body. 

References: 

Jan V. And Karel C (2011) Pigments of higher fungi: a review, Czech Journal of Food Sciences 29(2):87-102

Mammen Daniel 

Tips for Start-ups in Herbal or Ayurvedic Medicines

Tips for Start-ups in Herbal or Ayurvedic Medicines

While delivering a lecture in a webinar on “Startup and Entrepreneurial Scope in Ayurvedic and Herbal products” in Veer Narmad South Gujarat University, I faced a few questions on how to start manufacturing unit by a Garduate in Botany, of course supported by A few teachers. Herewith I am providing you a few tips.

As most of the aspirants do not have large amount of money to invest in setting up a factory having GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices) facilities and expert man power and labour (To manage labourers is another big issue) one can go for either Loan licensing or Third Party manufacturing.

Loan licensing is when you will rent a particular space and machinery in another well-established manufacturer for manufacturing your own brand name products. In that case, marketed by and manufactured by name will be your own company with manufacturing address detail of hired manufacturing unit.

In Third Party manufacturing, you will enter into an agreement with another very reliable manufacturing company for manufacturing product with your brand name and company name. Manufacturer will produce the medicine under their own name and will supply to you in ready to sell form. You will be only marketing the product under your name. In this case you will have to share all the “secrets” of your medicine with them. This is comparatively easy process and need very less documentation and formalities. Here the manufacturer’s name and address will be mentioned.

Other necessary steps from your part are the following:

1. First step will be making a formulation i.e. a medicinal preparation. This can be done by:

a. Selecting a disease; say diabetes, acidity etc.

b. Selecting the component plants you want to keep in formulation. It is better you select the best plants available. Select plants having a lot of Clinical research data or ethnobotanical data. They should be freely available in market and affordable to pocket. You may keep all component plants in equal proportions if all of them are having excellent activity. But if some are better than others, keep the best plants as major components. Do not use plants having little or no activity. The more plants you add, the percentage of individual plants will be coming down. Once all these matters are decided you can go for Loan Licensing or Third party manufacturing.

Other important points to produce a quality product are:

1. You will have to ensure that the raw material (plants) are correct.You can check it by morphological, pharmacognostic or phytochemical characters.

2. Extract the plants with deionised water by at least 2 repeated extractions of materials with fresh water.

3. If the plant contains water insoluble components, extract them with Isopropyl alcohol.

4. Add biocatalysts/bioenhancers like pepper.

5. If possible, add a few antioxidants.

Marketing is more important and difficult than manufacturing. Please make sure that you have the facilities for selling your product. If you cannot sell your product, your dreams will be shattered.

Mammen Daniel 

Better ways to prepare effective preparations of anticancer and biopesticidal Graveola ( Annona muricata)

Better ways to prepare effective preparations of anticancer and biopesticidal Graveola ( Annona muricata) 

 Annona muricata (Laxman Phal/ Hanuman phal, Mullatha in Mal) is a sought after plant known for its anticancer and biopesticidal potentials. Many patients collect leaves (found throughout year), boil them in water and drink. When fruits are available (Feb-April) they are eaten raw. Boiling leaves destroys the heat sensitive active compounds (acetogenins) and thus this extract may not give desired results at all (See properties of acetogenins below). 

The anticancer activities are due to Acetogenins (also known as THF- tetrahydrofuran acetogenins) which are characterized by a hydrocarbon chain of 35-37 carbons having a -lactone ring on one end and one/two /three tetrahydrofuran rings in the middle (for e.g.. annomuricin, annonacin etc.) Two hundred and twelve bioactive compounds have been reported from A. muricata of which more than 120 are different acetogenins, 30 are alkaloids like annonaine & annomuricine and 35 are phenolics including gallic acid, apigenin and tannins. Leaves contain the maximum acetogenins (43) followed by seeds (35) and pulp (13).

Several studies reported that A. muricata extracts (mainly from leaves and seeds) have an anti-tumor effect on several cell lines of breast, prostate, liver, and lung cancer among others, with the anti-tumor activity attributed to acetogenins. Isolated extracts up-regulate the activity of caspase 3 and 8 (apoptosis effectors), while downregulating the expression of survivin and Bcl-2, thereby enhancing apoptosis. The acetogenin annonacin promotes apoptosis in cancer cells by activating the caspase 3 and Bax pathways (Yuan et al., 2003), while squamocin induces apoptosis through the expression of the proapoptotic genes Bax and Bad, which results in the cleavage of PARP and the enhanced activity of caspase 3 in bladder T24 cancer cells (Yuan et al., 2006). They also lead to cycle arrest, which has implications for the proliferation of tumor cells. Acetogenins regulate the cell cycle in the G1/S transition by inhibiting cyclin D1 expression in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (Qian et al., 2015). In this context, the A. muricata extract arrests the cell cycle at the G1 phase and decreases the number of cells in the S phase in a concentration-dependent manner by reducing the expression of cyclin D1, an important regulatory protein of the cell cycle (Torres et al., 2012). They can also inhibit the mitochondrial Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) ubiquinone oxidase reductase (Complex I of the respiratory chain), which reduces the production of ATP.

However most of the people who administer this plant do not understand the properties of acetogenins. The acetogenins are low polarity compounds and they decompose at 60ºC and their extraction yields are low using classical organic solvent extraction method. They are readily soluble in most organic solvents but are almost insoluble in water (<1 μg/mL) Therefore the researchers do not recommend boiling the plant material in water. For research purposes, the raw extract of acetogenins is obtained principally by maceration, percolation, or solid–liquid extraction [5,12]. However, these techniques require the use of large volumes of solvents, application of heating, and long extraction times. Extraction using ultra sound also recommended as also Super critical fluid method.

 The best way to extract Graveola acetogenins at home is by putting fresh material in a mixer with water, grind it for 10 to 15 minutes, decant/filter the extract. The residue is once again put back in mixer and ground and extract taken and consumed fresh. Otherwise you can have 1 to 2 teaspoonful of leaf/seed powder (dried in shade) 1-2 times a day

For pesticidal preparations, extract leaves or seeds first in kerosene, add soap (to make it miscible with water) and add water.

Main Ref.

 Ana V.Coria-TéllezadEfigeniaMontalvo-GónzalezbElhadi M.YahiacEva N.Obledo-Vázquezd Annona muricata: A comprehensive review on its traditional medicinal uses, phytochemicals, pharmacological activities, mechanisms of action and toxicity Arabian Journal of ChemistryVolume 11, Issue 5, July 2018, Pages 662-691.

Mammen Daniel 

Conocarpus tree- a dangerous avenue and Garden tree

Conocarpus tree- a dangerous avenue and Garden tree

Conocarpus erectus, a native of Tropical America, is a fast-growing and drought-resistant tree, for these reasons it is widely planted in almost all cities around around parking and as avenue trees on the the streets in recent years. The ministry of municipalities and ministry of higher education of Iraq has banned this species based on rumors about the infrastructure damages caused by this tree. 

 Conocarpus tree has negative effects or disadvantages that could harm and damage the country. It is advisable not to plant Conocarpus trees near buildings because of the ravages of its radical water system, which may cause damage to infrastructure, water pipes, and drainage. Conocarpus does produce pollens and twice a year. These pollution are the potential allergens that can cause some ill effects like the allergy to some people. A study conducted by researchers of the Department of Botany in the University of Karachi found that the number of Asthma patients was higher in September to October. “The percentage of Conocarpus species were most frequent from months September to October and likely to be the causative agents of Asthma.” 

A research study conducted by Shahmukh and co-workers in 2020, to investigate the reality of these damage to infrastructure on the basis of scientific principles, lasted for two years in cooperation with services directorates (municipal, sewage, water, and communications) in Misan province. Four infrastructure damages caused by this tree have been reported three out four were reported in drinking water pipes led to water outages for few days, and the other one was reported in the domestic sewage causing a blockage at the junction of sewer pipes. Any case of damage to streets, sidewalks and line services (electricity and internet) were not reported in the present study. According to soil tests and other parameters including (tree height, length of the root, the pruning and the distance between the tree and infrastructure) that have been used in the current study, lack of irrigation and not to prune the trees planted near the infrastructure represents the main causes that led to the occurrence of infrastructure damages by the hydrotropism, which increment of root extension and ended with its pipe penetration leading to blockage of water drinking and sewer pipes. In conclusion, this tree can be planted, but with conditions that include regular irrigation, pruning leaf, and plant trees away from the infrastructure.

References

  Shahmukh, A.F., S.A, Ghailan and D.M. Mohsin (2020) Plant Archieves Vol.20, supplement 2, 2020, 1224-1227

Mammen Daniel 

Sharing PDF of our research articles with readers

Sharing PDF of our research articles with readers.

I could publish 16 research papers in the last three years regarding Botany, Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry of a number of medicinal plants including a few of “Dasamoola”, in addition to subjects like anomalous secondary thickening and allelopathy, with my students, in various journals. If any researcher from Botany, BioSciences, Pharmacy, Ayurveda etc. needs, I can share the PDF of the desired paper with them. Please send your email to me. The list of papers is given below.

1. A novel anomalous spiral secondary growth in roots of Trianthema portulacastrum L. 2020

2. An in-depth study on the phytochemical and pharmacognostic features of Pedalium murex L. 2020

3. Studies on the Allelopathic effects of two Social Forestry trees onTriticum aestivumvar Lok1.2021

4. Phytochemical and Pharmacognostic Studies on Limonia acidissima L. 2021

5. An Integrated Study On The Phytochemistry And Pharmacognosy Of Various Parts Of Trianthema portulacastrum L., 2021

6. Market samples of Terminalia chebula (Harde) fruit: an in-depth study of their phytochemical and pharmacognostic characters, 2021

7. Trichomes as biomarkers for the identification of a few medicinal plants of the family Malvaceae, 2021

8. Pharmacognostic and Phytochemical Studies on Various Parts of Solanum

americanum Mill.2021

9. The fruit architecture, pharmacognosy and phytochemical characters of Terminalia bellirica Roxb., 2021

10. An in-depth study on various parts of Tribulus terrestris Linn., one of the famous “dasamoola” of india, 2021

11. Vincentoxicum indicum(Burm.f.) Mabb.(Tylophora indica) ,a case of transient abnormal secondary thickening in stem.2021

12. An in-depth study on various parts of Pleurolobus gangeticus (L.) J.ST._ HIL. (Desmodium gangeticum DC), a component of the famous “dasamoola”, 2022.

13. Antiviral Compounds in Plants with Particular Emphasis on Covid-19, 2022

14. LCMS analysis of root resins of Pleurolobus gangeticus (L.) J.ST._ HIL. (syn. Desmodium gangeticum (L.)DC)., 2022-11-28, 2022

15. Pericyclic origin of Monocot meristem – Evidences from Curcuma and Zingiber. 2022

16. Tetracarpellary ovary in Brassicaceae -a case study with young fruits of Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus ALEF. (Rat tail raddish), 2022

Mammen Daniel 

Limonoids and Quassinoids, the bitter principles of Rutales

Limonoids and Quassinoids, the bitter principles of Rutales.

(Photos: Limonin, Lemon and Simarouba(Laxmi-taru)

We all are familiar with , though unknowingly, these compounds. The delayed bitterness of the juices from various Citrus spp., which were considered as the culprits lowering the juice quality, is due to limonoids. The word “Limonoids’ is derived from “limonin” the first bitter principle isolated from lemon. Limonoid aglycones that cause bitterness in numerous citrus fruits are converted into tasteless limonoid glucosides during fruit maturation. More than 50 limonoid aglycones and glucosides have been identified from various Citrus species. Over 300 limonoids have been isolated to date and about one-third are generated from neem (Azadirachta indica) and Chinaberry (Melia azedarach). These compounds are characteristically present in the order “Rutales” consisting of Rutaceae, Meliaceae, Simaroubaceae and Cneoraceae (Daniel, 2009).

       Both Limonoids and Quassinoids are formed by the loss of a few carbon atoms from C30 triterpenoids and thus known as nor-triterpenoids. Most of the limonoids are C26 compounds, having 4 carbons less than the triterpenoids and thus are named “Tetra-nor- triterpenoids”. With loss of more carbon atoms (up to 10-11), Quassinoids are formed. They are C20/C19 compounds named after the plant Quassia. 

       The Limonoids are characteristic to the families Rutaceae, Meliaceae and Cneoraceae, whereas quassinoids are seen in the Simaroubaceae. Limonoids are tetra-nor-triterpenoids formed by the conversion of 8-carbon side at C17 to a furan ring with subsequent loss of four atoms. Five groups of Limonoids are recognized 1). Tirucallane group has an intact triterpenoid skeleton (C¬30) where there is no reduction in carbon number, 2) Azadirone group, 3) Gedunin group, 4) Azadirachtin group which are well-known antifeedant compounds, 5). Toonafolin group, 6) Tricoccin group, 7)Surenolactone group and 8) Penta-nor-triterpenoids (C¬¬25) All the various types of limonoids (expect for the last group of C25) are seen in members of Meliaceae. The limonoids of Rutaceae belong mostly to the 3rd and 6th group i.e. A and D ring cleaved (seco-limonoids). Quassinoids possess C20 or C19 skeletons though a few possess C25 skeleton. All the quassinoids are heavily oxygenated lactones. Altogether five groups are recognized here. 

1. Medicinal properties of limonoids and quassinoids .

Limonoids have a large number of pharmacological activities like, anticancer, antimicrobial(against fungal, bacterial and parasitic infections like eczema, ringworm, scabies, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (in vitro)), antiviral measles virus (in vitro) and fowl pox, antihistaminic, antimalarial (Plasmodium falciferum), antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic (diabetes) and hepatoprotective, hypotensive and anxiolytic properties. It is also used against atherosclerosis and heart attack. 

         Limonoids have been shown to inhibit proliferation of the cancers of the stomach, colon, breast, skin, and pancreas. Nimbolide, the most potent neem limonoid was found to inhibit the growth of myriad cancer cell lines including 143B TK osteosarcoma, HL-60, U-937 and THP-1 leukemic, B16 melanoma, SMMC 7721, A-549, MCF-7 breast, MD-MBA-231, HT-29, SW-620, SW-480, HOP-62, A-549, prostate PC-3, choriocarcinoma (BeWo), leukemic (HeLa) and WiDr and HCT-116 colon adenocarcinoma and ovarian OVCAR-4,5,8 cell lines [9,13–17,34–36]. Studies also indicated that the anticancer properties of limonoids can be correlated to the induction of glutathione S-transferase, a major detoxifying enzyme system. 

The medicinal plants containing quassinoids are Picrasma excelsa Planch. (Quassia),(Pikra = bitter, alluding to bitter leaves and wood), Quassia amara L. and Brucea javanica Merril (B. amarissima Desv., B. antidysenterica Merril

Biopesticidal properties

  Limonoids and quassinoids form a group of best biopesticides, non-toxic to man and animals. A broad spectrum of biological activities of limonoids has been reported, ranging from insecticidal, insect antifeedant and growth regulatory activities on insects. It is known that neem limonoids (azadirachtin) or derivatives have the potential to effectively control more than 200 insect species without harming the environment. Azadirachtin and other limonoids isolated from other species of plants have adverse effects on larvae of mosquitoes and flies.

 Biopesticidal plants

1. Aglaia basiphylla. A. Gray and A. gracilis A. C. Smith and many other species of Aglaia. Azadirachta indica A. Juss, Cedrela sinensis Juss. Guarea grandiflora A.D.C.

4. Lansium domesticum Corr. (Lansone)

5. Melia azedarach Linn. (Bakum-nimb, Persian Lilac)

6. Swietenia humilis Zucc.

7. Toona ciliata Roem. (Cedrela toona Roxb.-Indian Mahogany)

8. Trichilia emetica Vahl (Natal Mahogany)

9. Walsura trifoliolata Harms (W. piscida Roxb.) 

10. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. (Ardusa, Tree of heaven).

11. Hannoa undulata Planch. (Quassia undulata D. Dietr)

12. H. klaineana Pierre & Engl.

13.. Picrasma excelsa

14.. Quassia amara Linn.

 Due to the insect-repellant and insecticidal limonoids, the woods of this family are very strong and are commercially much exploited. For eg. 1. Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. (Mahogany) Cedrela odorata Linn. (Spanish Cedar) and C. toona Roxb. (Moulmein Cedar), and Khaya senegalensis are the important timber trees known for their stability towards insect and pest attacks.

 Natural Dyes are prepared from Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss., will keep clothes resistsnt to mosquitos and other insects.

References:

1. Taxonomy: Evolution at Work. M. Daniel, (2009) Alpha Science International Ltd, Oxford, U. K. Pages 467.

2. Useful Herbs of the Planet Earth, M. Daniel, (2012), Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, Pages 710, 

Mammen Daniel 

Pumpkin seeds

Pumpkin seeds

Pumpkin seeds for prostate enlargement and cancer.

Prostate Problems (enlargement and cancer) occurs because during aging the male sex hormone testosterone get converted to a related compound, dihydrotestosterone which stimulates prostate cell proliferation. Eventually, an enlarged prostate can clamp down on the urethra, restricting the flow of urine from the bladder and semen. This leads to problems such as frequent urination, urine leakage, urinary tract infections and pain at the time of ejaculation. Prostate cancer is associated with urinary dysfunction as the prostate gland surrounds the prostatic urethra.

There are only 2 drugs, finasteride (Proscar) and terazoin (Hytrin) to treat prostate enlargement in allopathic system of medicine. Proscar is not effective for about 50% of men and also causes side effects like decreased libido, ejaculatory problems and loss of erection. Surgery is often resorted to reduce the size of prostate.

But in folklore there are excellent medicines like pumpkin seeds to treat prostate problems. Dr James Duke, the well known American Ethnobotanist and Phytochemist, recommends liquorice and saw palmetto also for treating this disorder (Green Pharmacy).

Pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita pepo L.) contain oil rich in tocopherols, β-sisosterol phenolic acids, cucurbitacins and are rich in zinc and amino acids like alanine glycine and glutamic acid.

Pumpkin seeds are the traditional treatment for BPH in Bulgaria, Turkey and Okraine. A handful of seeds per day throughout adulthood is recommended to keep prostate healthy. They are prescribed to treat ailments of the prostate gland. In particular, the seeds’ combination of high zinc content and diuretic effect makes it a good remedy for noncancerous prostate enlargement. And a Swedish clinical trial found that a substance called curbicin, obtained from pumpkin seeds and dwarf palms, noticeably improved the symptoms of enlarged prostate. Both zinc and cucurbitacins prevent transformation of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone . Amino acids such as alanine glycine and glutamic acid also are found useful in relieving BPH symptoms.

Pumpkin seeds are also found to increase seminal fluid and thus useful in lower sperm count and Erectile dysfunction.

Pumpkin seed oil improves the function of the bladder and urethra, arthritic conditions and is a a popular de-worming remedy, especially for children.

The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported prostatic action (BHP, 1996) for pumpkin seeds. In a multi centre controlled study involving more than two thousand subjects, a product containing pumpkin seeds was evaluated for the treatment of benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH). The results indicated that, not only were pumpkin seeds effective in reducing symptoms associated with BPH, especially in its early stages, but also no side effects were reported by the patients involved in the trial . In a Swedish study involving 53 patients, pumpkin seed reduced symptoms related to BPH, without any side effects. Other clinical trials also show that pumpkin seeds, with other herbs, have a positive effect against mild to moderate BPH. A study in Egypt (Manal K Abdel-Rahman, 2006 ) conclude that pumpkin seed at 10% can inhibit citral-induced hyperplasia of the ventral prostate lobe as observed in reducing protein binding prostate levels, weight of ventral prostate lobe and improve histology of testis therefore may be beneficial in the management of benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Mammen Daniel.